Inhibition of Transglutaminase 2 as a Therapeutic Strategy in Celiac Disease-In Vitro Studies in Intestinal Cells and Duodenal Biopsies.

Enzymatic modification of gliadin peptides by human transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a key mechanism in the pathogenesis of celiac disease (CD) and represents a potential therapeutic target. Recently, we have identified the small oxidative molecule PX-12 as an effective inhibitor of TG2 in vitro. In this study, we further investigated the effect of PX-12 and the established active-site directed inhibitor ERW1041 on TG2 activity and epithelial transport of gliadin peptides. We analyzed TG2 activity using immobilized TG2, Caco-2 cell lysates, confluent Caco-2 cell monolayers and duodenal biopsies from CD patients. TG2-mediated cross-linking of pepsin-/trypsin-digested gliadin (PTG) and 5BP (5-biotinamidopentylamine) was quantified by colorimetry, fluorometry and confocal microscopy. Cell viability was tested with a resazurin-based fluorometric assay. Epithelial transport of promofluor-conjugated gliadin peptides P31-43 and P56-88 was analyzed by fluorometry and confocal microscopy. PX-12 reduced TG2-mediated cross-linking of PTG and was significantly more effective than ERW1041 (10 µM, 15 ± 3 vs. 48 ± 8%, p < 0.001). In addition, PX-12 inhibited TG2 in cell lysates obtained from Caco-2 cells more than ERW1041 (10 µM; 12 ± 7% vs. 45 ± 19%, p < 0.05). Both substances inhibited TG2 comparably in the intestinal lamina propria of duodenal biopsies (100 µM, 25 ± 13% vs. 22 ± 11%). However, PX-12 did not inhibit TG2 in confluent Caco-2 cells, whereas ERW1041 showed a dose-dependent effect. Similarly, epithelial transport of P56-88 was inhibited by ERW1041, but not by PX-12. Cell viability was not negatively affected by either substance at concentrations up to 100 µM. PX-12 did not reduce TG2 activity or gliadin peptide transport in confluent Caco-2 cells. This could be caused by rapid inactivation or degradation of the substance in the Caco-2 cell culture. Still, our in vitro data underline the potential of the oxidative inhibition of TG2. The fact that the TG2-specific inhibitor ERW1041 reduced the epithelial uptake of P56-88 in Caco-2 cells further strengthens the therapeutic potential of TG2 inhibitors in CD.

PARK7 Diminishes Oxidative Stress-Induced Mucosal Damage in Celiac Disease.

Coeliac disease (CD) is a chronic, immune-mediated small intestinal enteropathy, accompanied with gluten-triggered oxidative damage of duodenal mucosa. Previously, our research group reported an increased mucosal level of the antioxidant protein Parkinson's disease 7 (PARK7) in children with CD. In the present study, we investigated the role of increased PARK7 level on the epithelial cell and mucosal integrity of the small intestine. The presence of PARK7 was investigated using immunofluorescent staining on duodenal mucosa of children with CD and on FHs74Int duodenal epithelial cells. To investigate the role of oxidative stress, FHs74Int cells were treated with H2O2 in the absence or presence of Comp23, a PARK7-binding compound. Intracellular accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was determined by DCFDA-based assay. Cell viability was measured by MTT, LDH, and Annexin V apoptosis assays. Disruption of cytoskeleton and cell adhesion was investigated by immunofluorescence staining and by real-time RT PCR. Effect of PARK7 on mucosal permeability was investigated ex vivo using intestinal sacs derived from control and Comp-23-pretreated mice. Comp23 treatment reduced the H2O2-induced intracellular accumulation of ROS, thus preserving the integrity of the cytoskeleton and also the viability of the FHs74Int cells. Accordingly, Comp23 treatment increased the expression of antioxidants (NRF2, TRX1, GCLC, HMOX1, NQO1), cell-cycle regulators (TP53, CDKN1A, PCNA, BCL2, BAX), and cell adhesion molecules (ZO1, CDH1, VCL, ITGB5) of H2O2-treated cells. Pretreatment with Comp23 considerably decreased the small intestinal permeability. In this study, we demonstrate that PARK7-binding Comp23 reduces the oxidative damage of duodenal epithelial cells, via increased expression of NRF2- and P53-regulated genes. Our results suggest that PARK7 plays a significant role in the maintenance of mucosal integrity in CD.

Constitutive Differential Features of Type 2 Transglutaminase in Cells Derived from Celiac Patients and from Healthy Subjects.

Type 2 transglutaminase (TG2) is a ubiquitous enzyme able to modify gliadin peptides introduced into the organism through the diet. By means of its catalytic activity, TG2 seems to have an important pathogenetic role in celiac disease (CD), an inflammatory intestinal disease caused by the ingestion of gluten-containing cereals. A strong autoimmune response to TG2 characterizes CD development. Anti-TG2 antibodies specifically derange the uptake of the α-gliadin peptide 31-43 by control, but not by celiac dermal fibroblasts, underlying some different constitutive features regarding TG2 in healthy and celiac subjects. Our aim was to investigate whether these differences depended on a different TG2 subcellular distribution and whether peptide 31-43 differentially regulated TG2 expression and activity in cells of the two groups of subjects. We found that TG2 was more abundantly associated with membranes of celiac fibroblasts than of control cells, in particular with the early endosomal and autophagic compartments. We also found that peptide 31-43 differentially affected TG2 expression and activity in the two groups of cells, activating TG2 more in control than in celiac cells and inducing TG2 expression in celiac cells, but not in control ones. The different TG2 subcellular localization and the different way the peptide 31-43 modulates TG2 activity and availability into control and CD cells suggested that TG2 is involved in the definition of a constitutive CD cellular phenotype, thus having an important and still undefined role in CD pathogenesis.

Metabolism of wheat proteins by intestinal microbes: Implications for wheat related disorders / Metabolismo de las proteínas del trigo por microbios intestinales: implicaciones en los trastornos relacionados con el trigo

Wheat is a common cereal in the Western diet and an important source of protein as well as fiber. However, some individuals develop adverse reactions to a wheat-containing diet. The best characterized is celiac disease which develops after intake of gluten in individuals with genetic predisposition. Other wheat-related conditions are less well defined in terms of diagnosis, specific trigger and underlying pathways. Despite this, the overall prevalence of wheat-related disorders has increased in the last decades and the role of microbial factors has been suggested. Several studies have described an altered intestinal microbiota in celiac patients compared to healthy subjects, but less information is available regarding other wheat-related disorders. Here, we discuss the importance of the intestinal microbiota in the metabolism of wheat proteins and the development of inflammatory or functional conditions. Understanding these interactions will open new directions for therapeutic development using bacteria with optimal wheat protein degrading capacity

El trigo es un cereal frecuente en la dieta occidental y una importante fuente de proteínas y fibra. Sin embargo, algunas personas presentan reacciones adversas a una dieta con trigo. La más conocida es la enfermedad celíaca, que se manifiesta después del consumo de gluten por parte de individuos con predisposición genética. Otras enfermedades relacionadas con el trigo no están tan bien definidas por lo que respecta al diagnóstico, el desencadenante específico y las vías subyacentes. A pesar de ello, la incidencia general de trastornos relacionados con el trigo ha aumentado en las últimas décadas, y se ha sugerido el papel de factores microbianos. Varios estudios han descrito cambios de la microbiota intestinal en pacientes celíacos frente a individuos sanos, pero hay menos información sobre otros trastornos relacionados con el trigo. En este artículo tratamos la importancia de la microbiota intestinal en el metabolismo de las proteínas del trigo y el desarrollo de trastornos inflamatorios o funcionales. El conocimiento de estas interacciones abrirá nuevas vías para el desarrollo terapéutico con bacterias con una capacidad óptima de degradación de las proteínas del trigo

HLA-DQ2 homozygosis increases tTGA levels at diagnosis but does not influence the clinical phenotype of coeliac disease: A multicentre study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Magnitude of gluten-specific T-cell responses in coeliac disease (CD) might be dependent on HLA-DQ2 gene dose. We aimed to investigate the effects of HLA-DQB1*02 allele dose on clinical outcomes. METHODS: We reviewed the charts of all coeliac patients attending to three Hungarian university clinics after 1997 and included those patients, who (a) were diagnosed with CD, (b) underwent high-resolution HLA typing and (c) were ≥18 years at the time of data collection. HLA typing was performed to determine DQB1*02 allele dose. Patients were divided into risk groups by DQB1*02 allele dose, as follows: high-, intermediate- and low-risk groups corresponded to a double, single and zero doses, respectively. We used ANOVA and Pearson's chi-squared test to explore association between HLA risk and clinical variables. RESULTS: A total of 727 coeliac patients attended the clinics but only 105 (14.4%) patients were eligible for inclusion. High, intermediate and low HLA risk patients comprised 35.3%, 52.3% and 12.3% of the study population, respectively. Double dose of HLA-DQB1*02 was more frequent in patient with high tTGA level (>10 times the upper limit of normal; p = 0.045). Gene dose was not associated with younger age at diagnosis (p = 0.549), gender (p = 0.739), more severe diagnostic histology (p = 0.318), more frequent classical presentation (p = 0.846), anaemia (p = 0.611), metabolic bone disease (p = 0.374), dermatitis herpetiformis (p = 0.381) and autoimmune diseases (p = 0.837). CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows a significant gene dose effect in terms of tTGA level at diagnosis, but no significant association between HLA-DQB1*02 allele dose and the clinical outcomes in CD.

Deamidated gliadin peptide in pediatric patients with moderately increased tissue transglutaminase; does it help?

BACKGROUND: Deamidated gliadin peptide (DGP) is a relatively new serologic assay used in diagnosis and monitoring of celiac disease. DGP IgG is recommended by some in pediatric patients <2 y. Use in other pediatric populations is not well established. The utility of the DGP screen (IgG + IgA) in patients with moderate increase of tissue transglutaminase (TTG) IgA has not been studied. METHODS: Cases between January 2015 and October 2017 in which a patient had TTG IgA greater >19 and <100, DGP screen, and biopsy were collected. Indication for biopsy and diabetes diagnosis were recorded. Of 495 patients screened, 31 met criteria. RESULTS: The sensitivity and specificity of DGP screen were calculated, and were 87.4% and 56%, respectively; though lower in patients with diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: The study suggests in patients with moderately increased TTG-IgA, DGP screen lacks specificity and does not provide additional information about whether or not to biopsy.

Ex vivo Culture of Duodenal Biopsies from Patients with Dermatitis Herpetiformis Indicates that Transglutaminase 3 Antibody Production Occurs in the Gut.

Coeliac disease and dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) are characterized by autoantibodies targeting transglutaminase (TG)2 and TG3, respectively. Previous studies show that TG2 antibodies are produced in the gut and can be assessed in organ culture of small-intestinal biopsies from patients with coeliac disease. Thus far, no studies have investigated TG3 antibodies in organ culture of biopsies from patients with DH, or exploited the method in DH. The aim of this study was to investigate TG3 and TG2 antibody responses in serum and small-intestinal biopsies from patients with DH with active disease, and from those in remission. The majority of patients with DH were negative for both serum and organ culture medium TG2-targeting antibodies. Surprisingly, patients with active DH secreted TG3 antibodies into the culture medium despite seronegativity. In patients secreting high levels of TG3 antibodies into the culture medium, we also detected TG3-antibody-positive cells in the small-intestinal mucosa. These findings suggest that TG3 antibodies can be investigated in the organ culture system and that their secretion occurs in the small intestine, especially in active DH.

Intestinal Production of Anti-Tissue Transglutaminase 2 Antibodies in Patients with Diagnosis Other Than Celiac Disease.

It has been hypothesized that gluten-dependent production of anti-tissue-transglutaminase 2 (anti-TG2) antibodies may occur only at an intestinal level. We have investigated intestinal production of anti-TG2 antibodies in 136 patients with normal serum levels of anti-TG2 antibodies and normal duodenal mucosa. Intestinal deposits of anti-TG2 antibodies were evaluated by immunofluorescence and anti-TG2 antibodies released in organ culture supernatants measured by ELISA. Intestinal antibody libraries were obtained from 10 subjects. Immunohistochemistry for CD25⁺, CD3⁺, and TCR-γδ⁺ was assessed in subjects with positive (n = 32) and negative (n = 31) intestinal anti-TG2 antibodies. Globally 33/136 (24%) seronegative patients produced anti-TG2 autoantibodies at an intestinal level. Antibody libraries analysis confirmed the anti-TG2 antibodies mucosal production in all (n = 8) positive subjects. Lamina propria CD25⁺ cell count was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in patients with intestinal anti-TG2. Moreover, 13/32 (41%) of them showed high TCR-γδ⁺/CD3⁺ ratios. Intestinal anti-TG2 antibody production does not show absolute specificity for CD. It is seen more often in association with inflamed mucosa. Further investigations are necessary to prove the possible role of dietary gluten.

Screening for celiac disease, by endomysial antibodies, in patients with unexplained hypertransaminasaemia.

OBJECTIVE: To do a serological screening for celiac disease in patients with unexplained liver cytolysis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fifty-six patients with liver cytolysis without known aetiology were studied. Endomysial antibodies were determined by indirect immunofluorescence on human umbilical cord. Two thousand and five hundred blood donors served as control group. For statistical analysis, we used Chi-square or Fisher's exact test. RESULTS: The frequency of IgA endomysial antibodies in our patients was significantly higher than in the control group (8.92% vs. 0.28%, p < .001). In female, endomysial antibodies were significantly more frequent in patients than in healthy subjects (12.12% vs. 0.4%; p < .001). In male, endomysial antibodies were significantly more frequent in patients than in healthy subjects (4.34% vs. 0.22%; p = .006). The frequency of positive EMA in female patients was higher than in male, but the difference was not statistically significant (12.12% vs. 4.43%; p = .6). Two patients were non-compliant with the gluten-free diet. One patient was out of touch. For the two other patients, transaminase levels reverted to normal level within six months of strict gluten withdrawal. CONCLUSIONS: A screening for celiac disease should be included within the diagnosis protocol of liver cytolysis.

Diagnostic and Research Aspects of Small Intestinal Disaccharidases in Coeliac Disease.

Disaccharidases (DS) are brush border enzymes embedded in the microvillous membrane of small intestinal enterocytes. In untreated coeliac disease (CD), a general decrease of DS activities is seen. This manuscript reviews different aspects of DS activities in CD: their utility in the diagnosis and their application to in vitro toxicity testing. The latter has never been established in CD research. However, with the recent advances in small intestinal organoid techniques, DS might be employed as a biomarker for in vitro studies. This includes establishment of self-renewing epithelial cells raised from tissue, which express differentiation markers, including the brush border enzymes. Determining duodenal DS activities may provide additional information during the diagnostic workup of CD: (i) quantify the severity of the observed histological lesions, (ii) provide predictive values for the grade of mucosal villous atrophy, and (iii) aid diagnosing CD where minor histological changes are seen. DS can also provide additional information to assess the response to a gluten-free diet as marked increase of their activities occurs four weeks after commencing it. Various endogenous and exogenous factors affecting DS might also be relevant when considering investigating the role of DS in other conditions including noncoeliac gluten sensitivity and DS deficiencies.

Understanding the Catalytic Mechanism and the Substrate Specificity of an Engineered Gluten Hydrolase by QM/MM Molecular Dynamics and Free Energy Simulations.

Celiac sprue, also known as gluten-sensitive enteropathy, is a chronic disease suffered by approximately 1% of the world's population. Engineered enzymes have been emerging to treat celiac disease by hydrolyzing the pathogenic peptides of gluten. For example, Kuma010 has been studied experimentally and proved to be a promising gluten hydrolase under gastric conditions. However, the detailed catalytic mechanism and the substrate specificity are still unclear. In this paper, quantum-mechanical/molecular-mechanical (QM/MM) molecular dynamics (MD) and free energy simulations were performed to determine the catalytic mechanism, the substrate specificity, and the role of the active-site residues during the reaction. The results given here demonstrate that the Kuma010 has a similar catalytic mechanism but different substrate specificity as wild-type kumamolisin-As. Binding properties of the enzyme (especially mutated residues) and substrate complex are discussed, and activation free energy barriers toward different substrates have also been examined. The computational free energy results are in reasonable agreement with the experimental data. The strategy for developing next-generation gluten hydrolases is discussed.

Association of PTPN22 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms with Celiac Disease.

OBJECTIVES: Celiac disease is a chronic autoimmune disease in which gene-environment interactions cause the immune system to unfavorably react to naturally gluten-containing foods. PTPN22 plays a crucial role in regulating the function of various cells of the immune system, particularly T cells. Polymorphisms of the PTPN22 gene have been associated with many autoimmune diseases. The present genetic association study was conducted to investigate the possible associations between PTPNTT single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and celiac disease in an Iranian population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study population consisted of 45 patients with celiac disease and 93 healthy controls. The study genotyped five SNPs of the PTPN22 gene: rs12760457, rs1310182, rs1217414, rs33996649, and rs2476601. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Control and patient groups did not differ on the genotype distribution of four of five investigated SNPs in the PTPN22 gene, for example, rs12760457, rs2476601, rs1217414, and rs33996649. The only investigated PTPN22 variant, which could be associated with CD, was rs1310182. A significant increase in the carriage of the T allele of rs1310182 in CD patients was observed (OR (95% CI) = 11.42 (5.41, 24.1), p value < 0.0001). The TT genotype of this SNP was significantly associated with celiac disease. Our study suggests that the rs1310182 SNP of PTPN22 gene may be a predisposing factor of celiac disease in the Iranian population. Further studies are required to investigate the issue in other racial and ethnic subgroups.

Correlation of Tissue Transglutaminase with Modified Marsh Grading in Celiac Disease: A Prospective Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVE: To find out correlation between serum anti-tissue transglutaminase immunoglobulin-A (tTGA) levels and Marsh grading on duodenal histopathology in Celiac disease (CD). METHODS: In a prospective cohort study, a total of 52 symptomatic patients between age group of 2-18 y were enroled. All enroled patients were subjected to upper GI endoscopy by an experienced endoscopist. Two biopsies each from the bulb (D1) and second part (D2) of the duodenum were taken and Marsh grading was performed by a single experienced pathologist. Serum tTGA levels were also performed to find out correlation between serum tTGA levels and Marsh grading. RESULTS: The mean age of the patients was 8.21 ± 3.45 y (Range: 2-16 y). Anemia was the most common non-gastrointestinal (GI) sign and was present in 73% of the cases. However the authors could not find out any significant association between Marsh grading and hemoglobin levels (r = 0.32, p > 0.05). Serum tTGA levels were found to be positively correlated with Marsh grading (Spearmen correlation coefficient ρ = 0.74, p 0.000). Significant differences were found in tTGA levels between different Marsh gradings (ANOVA test) (p 0.000). Receiver-operator curve (ROC) analysis cut-off value of serum tTGA for predicting villous atrophy was 178.8 (nine times of cut-off value) with sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 85.7%. CONCLUSIONS: Serum tTGA levels can be used to predict villous atrophy and biopsy may be avoided in strongly suspected cases with more than 9 times of cut-offs.

Towards Celiac-safe foods: Decreasing the affinity of transglutaminase 2 for gliadin by addition of ascorbyl palmitate and ZnCl2 as detoxifiers.

Initiation of celiac disease is triggered in the gastrointestinal tract by transglutaminase 2 (TG2) assisted deamidation of gluten peptides. Deamidation is a side-reaction to transamidation and occurs if primary amines are absent. In contrast to deamidation, transamidation does not trigger an immune response. The aim of the study was to identify a suitable food additive that interacts with TG2 binding motives in gluten-derived peptides to prevent deamidation/transamidation. Homology modelling of α2-gliadin and computational screening of compounds for their binding affinity to a common TG2 binding motive (P)QLP were done by using computational approaches followed by experimental testing of TG2 activity. A database containing 1174 potential food grade ligands was screened against the model of α2-gliadin (27 out of 33 aa). Out of the five best ligands, ascorbyl palmitate, was observed to decrease TG2 transamidation of gliadin by 82% ± 2%. To completely silence the transamidation, we added zinc chloride (ZnCl2), and thereby reached a 99% ± 1% inhibition of TG2 activity. In addition, we conducted a pilot experiment in which ascorbyl palmitate was observed to decrease TG2 deamidation of gliadin completely. We propose ascorbyl palmitate in combination with ZnCl2 with the future perspective to become an additive in celiac-safe foods.

Beyond moulage sign and TTG levels: the role of cross-sectional imaging in celiac sprue.

Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder that causes inflammation and destruction in the small intestine of genetically susceptible individuals following ingestion of gluten. Awareness of the disease has increased; however, it remains a challenge to diagnose. This review summarizes the intestinal and extraintestinal cross-sectional imaging findings of celiac disease. Small intestine fold abnormalities are the most specific imaging findings for celiac disease, whereas most other imaging findings reflect a more generalized pattern seen with malabsorptive processes. Familiarity with the imaging pattern may allow the radiologist to suggest the diagnosis in patients with atypical presentations in whom it is not clinically suspected. Earlier detection allows earlier treatment initiation and may prevent significant morbidity and mortality that can occur with delayed diagnosis. Refractory celiac disease carries the greatest risk of mortality due to associated complications, including cavitating mesenteric lymph node syndrome, ulcerative jejunoileitis, enteropathy-associated T cell lymphoma, and adenocarcinoma, all of which are described and illustrated. Radiologic and endoscopic investigations are complimentary modalities in the setting of complicated celiac disease.

Addressing proteolytic efficiency in enzymatic degradation therapy for celiac disease.

Celiac disease is triggered by partially digested gluten proteins. Enzyme therapies that complete protein digestion in vivo could support a gluten-free diet, but the barrier to completeness is high. Current options require enzyme amounts on the same order as the protein meal itself. In this study, we evaluated proteolytic components of the carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes spp.) for use in this context. Remarkably low doses enhance gliadin solubilization rates, and degrade gliadin slurries within the pH and temporal constraints of human gastric digestion. Potencies in excess of 1200:1 (substrate-to-enzyme) are achieved. Digestion generates small peptides through nepenthesin and neprosin, the latter a novel enzyme defining a previously-unknown class of prolyl endoprotease. The digests also exhibit reduced TG2 conversion rates in the immunogenic regions of gliadin, providing a twin mechanism for evading T-cell recognition. When sensitized and dosed with enzyme-treated gliadin, NOD/DQ8 mice did not show intestinal inflammation, when compared to mice challenged with only pepsin-treated gliadin. The low enzyme load needed for effective digestion suggests that gluten detoxification can be achieved in a meal setting, using metered dosing based on meal size. We demonstrate this by showing efficient antigen processing at total substrate-to-enzyme ratios exceeding 12,000:1.

Herpesvirus Infections and Transglutaminase Type 2 Antibody Positivity in Childhood: The Generation R Study.

OBJECTIVES: Persistent viral infections have been implicated in the etiology of autoimmune diseases in adulthood, but it is not known whether herpesviruses are associated with the development of celiac disease autoimmunity in childhood. We assessed whether herpesvirus infections are associated with transglutaminase type 2 antibody (TG2A) concentrations in children at 6 years of age. METHODS: The present study was embedded within a population-based prospective cohort study. Serum immunoglobulin G levels against Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus (CMV), and herpes simplex virus type 1 were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay , and TG2A concentrations with fluorescence enzyme immunoassay in 4420 children at 6 years of age. Children were categorized based on TG2A concentrations into negative (<7 U/mL), positive (≥7-70 U/mL), and strongly positive (≥70 U/mL), that is, 10 times upper limit normal. RESULTS: Fifty-nine children (1.3%) were TG2A positive, and of these 31 (53%) had concentrations 70 U/mL or more. Children with TG2A concentrations 70 U/mL or more were less often infected with CMV (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 0.38, 95% CI 0.14-0.98, P = 0.04) and with any of the 3 viruses (aOR 0.38, 95% CI 0.18-0.78, P < 0.01) than children with TG2A negative concentrations. In addition, children with TG2A concentrations 70 U/mL or more were less often infected with 2 or more viruses than children with TG2A negative concentrations (aOR 0.15, 95% CI 0.03-0.65, P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Both CMV single infection and combined CMV, Epstein-Barr virus and/or herpes simplex virus type 1 infections are inversely associated with strongly TG2A positivity. This may indicate a protective effect of herpesvirus infections in the pathogenesis of celiac disease autoimmunity.

Transglutaminase inhibitors: a patent review.

INTRODUCTION: Transglutaminases (TGases) are a class of enzymes that play multifunctional roles. Their protein-crosslinking activity has been linked to fibrosis and Huntington's disease, their glutamine deamidation activity has been related to celiac disease and their GTP-binding activity has been implicated in cancer. All of these physiological disorders have prompted the development of inhibitors, which has accelerated dramatically over the past decade. AREAS COVERED: This review presents an overview of TGase inhibitors published in the patent literature, from the first compounds developed in the late 1980's, to the current date. This article is focussed on the chemical structure of new inhibitors and their probable mechanism of action. EXPERT OPINION: Comparison of effective TGase inhibitors reveals common structural features that may guide future design. Many of these elements are embodied in the first TGase inhibitor to recently enter into clinical trials.